Short
Course on Islam, Gender, and Reproductive Rights,
Southeast Asia, 4-25 June 2005, Indonesia
Funded
by the Ford Foundation
Organized by the Center for Women’s Studies, State Islamic
University,
Sunan Kalijaga Yogyakarta, Indonesia
The Study
of the Qur-An vs. Modern Education
for Islamic
Women in Cambodia
Farina So
Documentation Center of Cambodia
Cambodia’s
Muslim community (the Cham) faces many problems, including poverty,
relative isolation (outside the capital of Phnom Penh, most Muslims
live in communities that lack access to such basic infrastructure as
good roads, water, electricity, telecommunications, and newspapers),
and negative cultural perceptions (some members of the majority
Buddhist community and minority ethnic groups still view the Cham
with suspicion, if not superstition).
In 2005,
the Cambodia Television Network aired a program, “Manpower and
Destiny,” that for the first time featured a Cham as a lead
character. However, the series depicted the Muslim as an indolent
who depended on destiny rather than his own efforts. In addition,
the actor portraying the Cham character wears an earring (which
Muslim men are not allowed to do) and clothing that is supposed to
be worn for praying and religious ceremonies only. He also drinks
beer. An outcry from the Cham community contributed to the series
being taken off the air.
Muslim
women have traditionally faced a number of social and cultural
obstacles to their development, including fewer opportunities for
advancement than either the general population or Muslim men. These
translate into Cham women enjoying less access to adequate health
care, having lower status in society in terms of both family and
community decision making, lacking a voice in the political arena,
and lower educational attainment. This paper focuses on the last
area – education, which affects all the other problems women
experience. It also offers some solutions to improve their
situation.
Islam and
Education
Every Muslim
man’s and every Muslim woman’s prayer should be:
“My Lord!
Enrich me with knowledge.” Surah TA HA, 20:114.
For Muslims,
the Qur-An is the final word of Allah as revealed through his last
messenger Muhammad. This holy book contains guidance from Allah, not
only on how to find salvation but also on how people should live their
lives in the right way.
The Qur-An
begins with an important word: “Read.” It states that “The best form
of worship is the pursuit of knowledge,” and also that “The ink of the
scholar’s pen is more sacred than the blood of the martyrs.” The Qur-An
tells us that without education, it is difficult for people to
understand its teachings, and that education is vital for all aspects
of our lives.
However,
while the Qur-An says that both men and women should pursue knowledge,
it also places restrictions on women’s interactions with the outside
world (such as placing them under the protection of their parents),
and proscribes different rights for men and women owing to their
psychological and biological differences. This has limited women’s
ability to obtain modern academic educations, which has in turn
impeded their ability to become knowledgeable about the wider world
and to make intellectual and economic contributions to their families
and communities.
Literacy
in the Muslim World
One out of
every five people in the world today is Muslim. Yet only about 38% of
Muslims are literate. For women, the picture is even worse: in many
rural areas of the Islamic world, only about 5 out of every 100 women
can read and write. According to the United Nations Development
Programme, Muslim women also have the lowest economic and political
participation of any group of women in the world.
Many scholars
have linked the lack of education to the lack of economic
opportunities and development that are now plaguing many Muslim
countries. So, low levels of literacy are at least partly responsible
for the poverty in which many Muslims live today. It is likely that
people who lack modern education will fall further and further behind
and become mired in their poverty.
The world is
changing fast, and
how we
live our lives and the ways in which we earn a living play a very
important part in our future. Without strong human resources and
capital, it will be difficult for Muslims to advance. To use these
human resources wisely and to keep up with the rest of the world,
Muslims need
education, including such broad studies as science, mathematics,
economics, and of course, advanced technology.
Without a
doubt, women represent half of the Muslim world’s human resources, and
can play an indispensable part in development. They should not be
confined to the kitchen. Rather, they should be encouraged to pursue
their studies, have careers that make a contribution to their society,
and be empowered in decision making processes.
A Profile
of Cambodia’s Muslims
About 90% of
Cambodia’s 13.6 million people are Khmers, who practice Buddhism. The
other 10% comprise a variety of ethnic and religious groups, including
Vietnamese, Chinese, highland minorities, and Chams.
The Chams are
a diverse group; most of them descend from the Kingdom of Champa and
Malays (primarily of Javanese extraction). The Kingdom of Champa
controlled what is now south and central Vietnam from the 2nd
through the 17th centuries; its peoples converted from
Hinduism to Islam in the 15th century.
The Champa
Kingdom’s defeat at the hands of the Vietnamese in the 15th
and 18th centuries forced the Champa king and many of his
followers to flee to Cambodia, where most Cham live today. The Malay
influence on Chams is felt through their language, which is based on
Arabic and is akin to Bahasa Malaysia and Bahasa Indonesia.
Cham script,
in a book for the celebration of Muhammad’s birthday
All of
Cambodia’s Cham Muslims are Sunnis of the Shafii School. They practice
two types of Islam:
§
There
is a small traditionalist branch (about 35 villages) which retains
many ancient Muslim and pre-Muslim rites and traditions (e.g., from
Buddhism and Hinduism), and takes a more liberal interpretation of
Islam. This community’s attitudes toward women are also more liberal;
for example, few women cover their heads outside the area of the
mosque.
Cake
procession to the mosque during
Women at the mosque in Sre Prey
the Malut
festival in the traditional village
of Sre Prey,
O'Russey sub-district,
Kampong
Tralach district,
Kampong
Chhnang province
§
The
far larger orthodox Cham community takes a more conservative approach
to the practice of Islam and has adopted many Malay customs and
practices. In these communities, women lead more separate lives than
men. Women in the orthodox community generally wear the veil on their
heads and in a few communities are completely covered except for their
eyes.
However, in
neither community do women appear to participate actively in social or
political affairs, instead, they follow the instructions of community
religious leaders or their husbands and fathers. The author has not
observed any differences between the two communities in terms of the
percentage of women who attend schools. This may be due more to
external factors (the banning of head scarves by many public schools)
than community willingness to educate girls, as discussed below.
Like other
Cambodians, most Chams live in rural areas, where they are primarily
engaged in fishing and farming. Most of them are concentrated along
rivers in 6 of Cambodia’s 22 provinces: Kampong Cham, Kampot, Pursat,
Battambang, Kandal, and Kampong Chhnang.
It is believed that in 1975, when the Khmer Rouge took control of
Cambodia, the country’s Cham population was around 700,000. The Chams
suffered a devastating loss of people under the Khmer Rouge regime
(called Democratic Kampuchea), with an estimated 400,000 to 500,000
dying. Today, about 500,000 Chams live in Cambodia. There is evidence
to suggest that the Khmer Rouge persecuted the Cham Muslims on
religious and ethnic grounds. Documentation Center of Cambodia scholar
Osman Ysa has posited that Chams
were killed a rate
nearly double to triple that of the general Cambodian population
during the Democratic Kampuchea regime (Oukoubah: Justice for the
Cham Muslims under Democratic Kampuchea, DC-Cam, 2002).
During the
period of Khmer Rouge rule (April 1975 – January 1979), Chams were not
allowed to worship. Most of the country’s 130 mosques were destroyed
or desecrated, and only about 20 of the most prominent Cham clergy in
Cambodia survived the regime.
Like people
throughout Cambodia at the end of Democratic Kampuchea, about
three-quarters of the regime’s survivors were women. These widows
became the heads of their families and bore most of the responsibility
for putting their country back together (it was a policy of the regime
to kill educated people; thus, most of the survivors of Democratic
Kampuchea could not read or write). Many also suffered from
psychological problems and trauma as a result of the loss of family
members, hunger, forced labor, imprisonment, and other privations
during the regime.
Despite
women’s crucial role in helping Cambodia to recover, traditional
gender inequality subsequently resurfaced in all realms of Cham life,
including that of education. This has left a large proportion of
Cambodian Muslim women with few literacy skills today.
Education for
Cambodia’s Muslims
The Larger
Cham Community
Most of
Cambodia’s Muslims do not seem to be aware of the importance of modern
education and its role in economic development. Instead, imams,
hakim and tuan (community religious leaders), who have a
powerful influence on their communities, stress religious education
almost exclusively. To make matters worse, scholars seem to have
neglected the role of general education and its importance for
the
Cambodian Muslim community.
When other Islamic countries have studied education here, they, too,
are largely concerned with religious education.
Girls
studying Islamic texts in a traditional Cham village,
O'Russey
sub-district, Kampong Tralach district
In Cambodia,
the percentage of uneducated Muslim people is high, and even most
hakim and tuan are illiterate. They don’t have general
knowledge and cannot write in Khmer, which is Cambodia’s
official
language.
Because these
leaders lack modern education, they address disputes in the
traditional way. For example, when a conflict arises between
villagers, the imam, hakim and tuan usually
resolve it based on their personal experience. But their solutions
don’t always employ logic or strategy, and as a result the conflicting
parties often do not reconcile effectively. Finding solutions that
work requires a wide range of knowledge and experience that include
both religious and modern ways.
Further, few
of the tuan in rural areas who teach Muslim children about the
holy Qur-An and Islamic law have an adequate standard of living
because they do not have a modern education. If they had more than
religious knowledge, they could use their skills to help improve their
community’s standard of living, as well as enhance their own lives.
Last year, I
began working on a project that is recording the oral histories of the
Chams during the Khmer Rouge regime. As part of my work, I asked
religious leaders and lay people to complete questionnaires on their
experiences and views relating to this period of history. I have
observed that most villagers, hakim and tuan cannot
write well or don’t know how to write. When I asked them why, most
complained that they are illiterate and some said that they lack
education.
Many young
Cambodian Muslims recognize that a modern education is vital to their
future, but have little to no opportunity to get one beyond high
school. So instead, they study Islam and acquire mostly religious
knowledge. In answering my questions about studying abroad, they said
they had no alternative but to pursue the study of religious subjects.
The
Educational Status and Prospects for Cham Women
Democratic Kampuchea
left in its wake a legacy of illiteracy, and women (both Cham and
Buddhist) suffer from higher rates of illiteracy than men to this day.[1]
Much of this phenomenon can be attributed to economic and cultural
factors.
Poverty is a
pervasive and self-perpetuating influence on women’s lack of
education. Many Cham girls, like their Buddhist counterparts, are
unable to complete primary school because they are put in charge of
taking care of their younger brothers and sisters at home, doing
household chores such as gathering firewood and water, and working on
the family farm, especially at harvest time. In addition, such direct
expenses for school as fees, clothing and notebooks, as well as the
indirect costs of the loss of labor to the household, can be
prohibitive for many families. This represents a vicious cycle,
wherein poverty forces girls to labor for the family instead of
attending school. Without an education, women have little means of
earning a living outside the home, reinforcing their impoverishment in
the future.
Women in
conservative Kampong Keh village are studying in a religious class.
They have
been forced to drop out of school because of the policy banning head
scarves in
classes. (Kampong Keh sub-district, Trapeang Sangke district,
Kampot
province)
Cultural
factors also have a strong role in preventing many Cham women from
completing school. Cham girls begin their religious studies at around
the age of six; these classes are taught by a tuan in a girl’s
village or one nearby. They are required to wear a headscarf, long
blouse and skirt, and to strictly follow codes of Islamic behavior.
However, once they enter puberty and prepare to enter secondary
school, problems begin. Formal education is not mandatory in Cambodia
and in most secondary schools, the wearing of head scarves is not
permitted. This policy places both girls and their parents in a
dilemma.
If the
parents insist that the daughter wear a scarf in class, she will be
asked to leave school. But if they decide to let the girl remove her
scarf, she will be in direct violation of Islamic religious principles
and tradition. Thus, many parents elect to have their daughters drop
out of school; afterward, the girls often help at home with housework
and study religion. The daughters themselves have little say in the
matter.
These three
women from conservative O-kcheay village dropped out of school
at the age of
10 or 11 (Wat Tamim subdistrict, Sangke district, Battambang province)
The author
made several trips to Kampot and Battambang provinces during 2004 and
2005 to learn about some of the problems Cham women face in their
communities. In the village of Kampong Keh in Kampot province, for
example, interviews were conducted with imam, hakim,
tuan, and a group of approximately 35 Muslim men and women around
the age of 16.
In this
orthodox Cham village, where about 250 families live, it is difficult
to see Muslim women in secondary school; instead, most dropped out at
when their primary education was completed. When asked why this was, I
was told that the reason was due to Islamic teaching, norms, and
economic necessity. The requirements for girls to cover their heads in
both class and public, and Muslim codes of behavior meant that girls
could not continue with their schooling.
There was
little difference in the orthodox village of O-kcheay in Battambang
province, where the practice of Islam is very strict. Women there wear
a black veil that covers all of their faces except the eyes and long
black dresses. There, I interviewed two women who had given birth on
the day the Khmer Rouge entered Phnom Penh and began forcing its
inhabitants to leave the city: April 17, 1975.
The daughter
of one of the women, who is now age 30, was nearly completely covered
according to the prescriptions of Islamic code. She told me that she
dropped out of school at a very young age because of her school’s
prohibition on head coverings. In addition, poverty forced her to
stay at home. This woman stated that she very much wanted an academic
education, but that circumstances had forced her to give up hope of
obtaining one.
The picture
for urban Muslim women is somewhat brighter: they are generally better
educated than their rural sisters and many of them work outside the
home, largely as a result of economic necessity. But in urban areas,
too, “economic necessity” can also mean that a girl must drop out of
school and work to support her family. In addition, many parents feel
that girls do not need to pursue more than a primary school education;
all they need to do is to be able to read and write. And many men feel
that their wives’ and daughters’ place is at home, taking care of the
children.
In both rural
and urban poor families, which must often make economic tradeoffs in
order to survive economically, the decision is often made to allow the
male children to attend school while the daughters stay at home. In
addition, men are encouraged and given preference in applying for
scholarships to complete their higher educations. This has helped keep
literacy rates at low levels for Cham women. Last, the position of
women – no matter what their religious background – has not been a
matter of concern to the Royal Government of Cambodia.
The Cambodian
Muslim Students Association conducted a survey on the position of men
and women in Cambodia in 2003. Their data show that men play a much
more important role than women in the community. For instance, only
one woman appears in the list of the country’s seventeen Muslim
leaders in the country (Table 1). It is worth noting that today, no
Chams have positions of authority in the Ministry of Education
(earlier, however, H.E. Tollah was minister of education and he was a
Cham).
Conclusions
The impact of
failing to understand modern education, social needs, the advances of
technology, and in particular, the role of women in development, will
be to weaken the community deeply in terms of rising violence,
illiteracy and poverty. How can Chams find jobs if they have only
religious training? How can they develop their community if they have
little knowledge of the modern world? And why has the Cambodian Muslim
community lagged so far behind its neighbors in Southeast Asia in
terms of education, health, and economic infrastructure?
Addressing these problems will depend on Muslim themselves, and on
advocacy and technical assistance from the national and international
communities. The
recognition
and acceptance of Muslim women’s roles in development and empowering
them in the education, economics, social, health and political spheres
is the best solution for the Cambodian Muslim community.
To develop the country and raise literacy, Cambodia must keep
up with global changes by obtaining
modern education in addition to religious knowledge. Hakim,
imam and tuan should, for example, be
educated in
management and administration in order to resolve community problems.
All Chams should also be encouraged to pursue higher education. And
last, Allah said that human beings should have both modern and
religious knowledge (Ilmu Dunia and Ilmu Akhirat) in order to live in
prosperity. This includes women, who will not be able to advance in
society without proper knowledge and education.
On behalf of Muslim women, I would like to appeal to both Muslim and
non-Muslim countries to grant more scholarships to women so they can
obtain general educations. And schools should reconsider their stance
on the wearing of head scarves in public schools, which has prevented
many Cham women from obtaining an education. These simple actions will
give Cambodia’s Muslim women opportunities to play a crucial role in
their communities, and help them prosper in the economic, political,
social, health, and other arenas.
Table 1
Cambodia’s Muslim
Leaders
for the 3RD
Mandate (2003-2008)*
No. |
Name |
Position |
Party** |
1 |
H.E.
Othsman Hassan |
§
Secretary of State, Ministry of Labor and Vocational Training
§
Advisor and Special Envoy to Prime Minister Samdech Hun Sen
§
President of
Cambodian Muslim Development Foundation
(CMDF)
§
Secretary General, the Foundation for Cambodian People’s Poverty
Alleviation (PAL)
§
Vice-Director of Cambodian Islamic Center (CIC)
§
Patron of Islamic Medical Association of Cambodia (IMAC)
§
Chairperson of the Islamic World and Malay to Cambodia (IWMC) |
CPP |
2 |
H.E.
Zakarya Adam |
§
Secretary of State, Ministry of Cults and Religion
§
Vice President of CMDF
§
General Secretary of CIC
§
Vice-Chairperson of IWMC |
CPP |
3 |
H.E.
Sith Ibrahim |
§
Secretary of State, Ministry of Cults and Religion |
FUN |
4 |
H.E.
Dr. Sos Mousine |
§
Under Secretary of State, Ministry of Rural Development
§
President of Cambodian Muslim Students Association and IMAC
§
Member of CMDF
§
Under-General Secretary of CIC |
CPP |
5 |
H.E.
Sem Sokha
|
§
Under Secretary of State, Ministry of Social Affairs and
Veterans
§
Member of CMDF |
CPP |
6 |
Her.E. Madame Kob Mariah |
§
Under Secretary, Ministry of Women
§
General Secretary of Cambodian Islamic Women Development
§
Cambodian Islamic Women’s Development Organization Association
and member of CMDF |
CPP |
7 |
H.E.
Msas Loh |
§
Under Secretary of State, Office of the Council of Ministers
§
Patron of Cambodian Islamic Association |
CPP |
8 |
H.E.
Paing Punyamin |
§
Member of Parliament representing Kampong Chhnang
§
Member of CMDF
§
Executive Member of CIC |
CPP |
9 |
H.E.
Sman Teath |
§
Member of Parliament representing Pursat
§
Member of CMDF
§
Under-General Secretary of CIC |
CPP |
10 |
H.E.
Ahmad Yahya |
§
Member of Parliament representing Kampong Cham
§
President of Cambodian Islamic Development Association (CIDA) |
SRP |
11 |
H.E.
Wan Math |
§
Member of the Senate
§
President of Cambodian Islamic Association |
CPP |
12 |
H.E.
Sabo Bacha |
§
Member of the Senate |
FUN |
13
|
Mr. Sem Soprey
|
§
Vice Governor
of Kampong Cham province
§
Member of CMDF |
CPP
|
14
|
Mr. Saleh Sen
|
§
Vice Governor
of Kampong Chhnang province
§
Member of CMDF
|
CPP
|
15 |
H.E.
Ismail Osman |
§
Advisor to Samdech Krompreah Norodom Rannarith, President of the
National Assembly |
FUN |
16 |
General
Chao
Tol |
§
Assistant to the Prime Minister of the Kingdom of
Cambodia |
CPP |
17 |
General
Sen
Komary |
§
Head of Department of Health, Ministry of National Defense
§
Member of IMAC |
CPP |
*
Three other leaders of the Muslim community – H.E. Tollah, H.E. Math
Ly, and Sou Zakarya, have died since 2003. All three were men.
**
CPP : Cambodian People’s Party
FUN : FUNCINPEC Party
SRP : Sam Rainsy Party (opposition)
|